Research Studies & Publications

Water Quality

Below are abstracts for published research studies from a variety of sources. Click on the article title to be taken to the complete article or to receive directions on how to purchase it.

Analysis of Compliance and Characterization of Violations of the Total Coliform Rule

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 2007

Total coliforms have long been used in drinking water regulations as an indicator of the adequacy of water treatment and the integrity of the distribution system. Total coliforms are a group of closely related bacteria that are generally harmless. In drinking water systems, total coliforms react to treatment in a manner similar to most bacterial pathogens and many viral pathogens. Thus, the presence of total coliforms in the distribution system can indicate that the system in also vulnerable to the presence of pathogens in the system. (EPA, June 2001, page 7) Total coliforms are the indicators used in the existing Total Coliform Rule (TCR).

EPA is undertaking “a rulemaking process to initiate possible revisions to the TCR. As part of this process, EPA believes it may be appropriate to include this rulemaking in a wider effort to review and address broader issues associated with drinking water distribution systems.” (see Federal Register 68 FR 19030 and 68 FR 42907). Since the promulgation of the TCR, EPA has received stakeholder feedback suggesting modifications to the TCR to reduce the implementation burden.

The purpose of this paper is to provide information on the number and frequency of violations of the TCR and to further characterize the frequency with which different types and sizes of systems incur violations. Although EPA explores some statistical testing in this paper, the paper concentrates on presenting the data, as it is, in SDWIS/FED. Information on these frequencies will be useful in supporting several EPA initiatives, particularly the effort to review and possibly revise the TCR. This paper has been undertaken as part of the review of the TCR.

EPA - FACTOIDS: Drinking Water and Ground Water Statistics for 2007

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007

There are approximately 156,000 public drinking water systems in the United States. Each of these systems regularly supplies drinking water to at least 25 people or 15 service connections. Beyond their common purpose, the 156,000 systems vary widely. The following tables group water systems into categories that show their similarities and differences. For example, the first table shows that most people in the US (286 million) get their water from a community water system. There are approximately 52,000 community water systems, but just eight percent of those systems (4,048) serve 82 percent of the people. The second table shows that more water systems have groundwater than surface water as a source--but more people drink from a surface water system. Other tables break down these national numbers by state, territory, and EPA region.

This package also contains figures on the types and locations of underground injection control wells. EPA and states regulate the placement and operation of these wells to ensure that they do not threaten underground sources of drinking water. The underground injection control program statistics are based on separate reporting from the states to EPA. The drinking water system statistics on the following pages are taken from the Safe Drinking Water Information System/Federal version (SDWIS/Fed). SDWIS/Fed is the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's official record of public drinking water systems, their violations of state and EPA regulations, and enforcement actions taken by EPA or states as a result of those violations. EPA maintains the database using information collected and submitted by the states. Notice: Compliance statistics are based on violations reported by states to the EPA Safe Drinking Water Information System. EPA is aware of inaccuracies and underreporting of some data in this system. We are working with the states to improve the quality of the data. Read an analysis of SDWIS/Fed data quality and get more information and additional drinking water data tables

Bottled Water Production in the United States: How Much Ground Water is Actually Being Used?

Keith N. Eshelman, Ph.D. Associate Professor, University of Maryland, Center for Environmental Studies, May 2005

A comprehensive, quantitative survey of bottled water producers in the U.S. that reveals data collected on bottled water production, specifically production from ground water, the primary source of bottled water.

Relative to other uses of ground water, bottled water production was found to be a de minimus user of ground water.

Recent Developments in Bottled Water Quality and Safety

Drinking Water Research Foundation, February 2004

Bottled water is among the foods most highly regulated by FDA under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA; 21 U.S.C. -321 et seq.). Under FDA jurisdiction, bottled water is subject to extensive general food safety and labeling requirements, including prohibitions on misbranding and adulteration (21 C.F.R. --101 and 109). Also, FDA has extensive enforcement capabilities, including the power to inspect food manufacturing facilities, issue warning letters, request voluntary recalls, and issue seizure or injunction against products or companies out of compliance, including seeking criminal prosecutions. Collectively, these requirements are the cornerstone of the very safe food supply enjoyed in the United States. In addition to these general food provisions, bottled water is also required to meet federal standards applicable specifically to bottled water, including Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) (21 C.F.R. --110 and 129) and specific identity and quality requirements (21 C.F.R. -165.110). The GMPs for bottled water apply to every aspect of production, from source water protection, through processing, to finished water sampling.

Analysis of the February, 1999 Natural Resources Defense Council Report on Bottled Water

Drinking Water Research Foundation, 1999

In February 1999, the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) issued a report entitled "Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype?" in which numerous wrong allegations against bottled water are raised. This document provides an extensive analysis and rebuttal of NRDC's conclusions, highlighting the various mistakes and wrong allegations made by NRDC.